Mahabharata

David R. Slavitt’s 2015 translation of the Mahabharata is an abridged, modern English rendition of the ancient Indian epic. Slavitt, an American poet, novelist, and translator, is experienced in translating classical texts for contemporary audiences. His translation seeks to make this foundational work of South Asian literature accessible to modern readers.

The Mahabharata is traditionally attributed to the sage Vyasa and was composed between approximately 400 BCE and 400 CE. As one of the longest epic poems in world literature, it spans over 100,000 couplets. The text is a cornerstone of Indian mythology and epic poetry, addressing themes central to Hindu philosophy and culture, including The Importance of Dharma (righteous duty), The Power of Storytelling, and The Pervasiveness of Moral Dilemmas.

The Mahabharata’s central conflict revolves around the dynastic struggle between two royal rivals, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, for the throne of Hastinapura, a city on the bank of the Ganges River. The conflict culminates in the Battle of Kurukshetra. Although omitted from Slavitt’s translation, originally embedded within the epic is the Bhagavad Gita, a philosophical discourse in which the god Krishna imparts spiritual wisdom to the warrior Arjuna, addressing fundamental issues of duty, righteousness, and the nature of existence.

This translation attempts to be an accessible entry point for those new to the Mahabharata by balancing fidelity to the original text with modern readability. It also provides insight into the epic’s depiction of ancient Indian societal norms, including caste systems and gender roles, which is crucial for understanding the work’s historical and cultural context.

This guide refers to the 2015 Northwestern University Press edition.

Content Warning: The source text and this guide discuss sexual assault, violence, death, and suicide. Certain passages of the epic also reflect offensive views that are based on historical cultural norms.

Plot Summary

The Mahabharata narrates the dynastic struggle between two branches of a royal family—the Pandavas and the Kauravas—for the throne of Hastinapura, a city on the bank of the Ganges River. The narrative weaves together tales of gods, sages, and mythical creatures, reflecting the multifaceted nature of Hindu mythology and cultural values. As the tale unfolds, it explores the complexities of familial loyalty, honor, and the pursuit of justice, culminating in the great Battle of Kurukshetra.

The Mahabharata begins with a framing narrative. The storyteller, Sauti, recounts his attendance at the snake sacrifice of King Janamejaya—a ritual performed to exterminate all the kingdom’s serpents—where he heard the entire Mahabharata recited by the sage Vaisampayana under the sage Vyasa’s guidance. In response to Sauti’s account, other sages (enlightened individuals who dedicate their lives to the pursuit of spirituality) request Sauti to recount the epic, and he agrees, invoking deities and describing the creation of the universe from a primordial cosmic egg—a concept reflecting Hindu cosmology, which sees the universe as cyclical. Sauti narrates how Vyasa composed the Mahabharata with the god Ganesha as his scribe. Ganesha, recognizable by his elephant head, is the Hindu god of wisdom and remover of obstacles, often invoked at the beginning of new endeavors.

Vyasa’s story begins with a detailed lineage of the Kuru dynasty, introducing key figures whose actions set the stage for the epic conflict. First, there is King Mahabhisha, cursed to be reborn as King Shantanu. The river goddess Ganga will also be reborn in human form to cause Shantanu distress. In Hindu mythology, Ganga personifies the river Ganges, considered the holiest river in India, and is worshipped as a goddess who can purify sins. Eight Vasus, celestial beings also cursed to be born as humans, implore Ganga to become their mother and liberate them swiftly. Ganga marries Shantanu on the condition that he never question her actions. She bears eight sons, casting the first seven into the river to free them from their curse. When she is about to cast the eighth son, Shantanu intervenes. Ganga reveals her true identity, explains the situation, and leaves, taking the eighth son, Devavrata (later known as Bhishma), with her.

The lineage continues with the tale of Satyavati, Shantanu’s second wife. Born from a cursed apsara (celestial nymphs known for their beauty and artistry in Hindu mythology) who transformed into a fish, Satyavati is raised by fishermen and is known for her fishy odor. She encounters the sage Parasara, who grants her perpetual virginity and a captivating fragrance; their union results in the birth of Vyasa (the author of the story). When Shantanu announces that he wishes to marry Satyavati, her father insists that her sons inherit the throne. To accommodate this, Bhishma, Shantanu’s son from Ganga, vows celibacy and renounces his claim to the throne to fulfill his father’s desire for Satyavati. Grateful, Shantanu grants Bhishma the boon of choosing the time of his death. (In Hindu mythology, deities, sages, or divine beings grant boons in recognition of an individual’s devotion, penance, or virtuous actions. Boons can bestow extraordinary powers or fulfill specific desires.)

Shantanu and Satyavati have two sons, Chitrangada and Vichitravirya, who die without heirs. According to the custom of niyoga, allowing widows or childless wives to have a child with another man, Satyavati calls upon Vyasa to father children with Vichitravirya’s widows, Ambika and Ambalika. This results in two sons, Dhritarashtra, who is born blind, and Pandu. A third son, Vidura, is born from a maid. Pandu becomes king but is cursed to die if he has sex. Retiring to the forest, he encourages his wives, Kunti and Madri, to invoke deities who can grant them boons to bear children. Kunti gives birth to some of the story’s most important figures: Yudhishthira, Bhima, and Arjuna. Madri, in turn, invokes the twin gods, giving birth to Nakula and Sahadeva. Collectively known as the Pandavas, all five return to Hastinapura after Pandu’s death.

The Pandavas grow up alongside their cousins, the Kauravas—the children of Dhritarashtra. Duryodhana, the eldest Kaurava, envies Bhima’s extraordinary strength. Bhima survives Duryodhana’s attempted poisoning and gains greater strength. Drona, a master of military arts and a revered teacher, or acharya, becomes the princes’ instructor, with Arjuna excelling in archery. When Drona seeks revenge on King Drupada due to a long-standing personal grievance, the Pandavas help fulfill this by defeating him, gaining his trust.

When Dhritarashtra appoints Yudhishthira as heir, it causes anxiety about his own sons’ prospects. Now desiring for them to retain power, Dhritarashtra considers strategies to eliminate the Pandavas. Duryodhana’s envy leads to a plot to burn the Pandavas alive in a palace made of flammable materials in a place called Varanavata. Warned by their half-brother Vidura, the Pandavas escape through a tunnel. In exile, they encounter Hidimva—a rakshasa, or demonic malevolent being. Bhima kills Hidimva and marries his sister, resulting in the birth of Ghatotkacha, who inherits his father’s strength and his mother’s magical abilities.

Continuing their wanderings, the Pandavas settle in Ekachakra, where Bhima kills the rakshasa Vaka, who terrorizes the town. They learn about King Drupada’s desire for revenge against Drona and about the birth of Drupada’s children, son Dhrishtadyumna and daughter Draupadi. Draupadi is prophesied to bring about the destruction of the Kauravas. The Pandavas attend Draupadi’s swayamvara (an ancient Indian practice where a princess chooses her husband from among assembled suitors), where Arjuna wins her hand. However, due to a misunderstanding, Draupadi becomes the shared wife of all five Pandava brothers, an unusual arrangement.

When the Kauravas learn of the Pandavas’ survival and marriage to Draupadi, Dhritarashtra grants the Pandavas half the kingdom, assigning them Khandavaprastha, a barren land, which they transform into the prosperous city of Indraprastha with the help of the divine architect Maya. Eventually, Duryodhana becomes envious of the Pandavas’ prosperity, so he devises a plan to challenge heir Yudhishthira to a rigged game of dice. Gambling is seen as a vice in Hindu ethics, and Yudhishthira’s weakness for it leads to disastrous consequences. Yudhishthira loses everything, including Draupadi, who is humiliated but saved by divine intervention: Arjuna’s charioteer, friend, and guide Krishna (an avatar of Vishnu, one of the most powerful gods in Hinduism) prevents Draupadi from being displayed in the nude. The Pandavas are then exiled for 12 years and must spend a 13th year incognito.

During their exile, the Pandavas undergo spiritual growth, receive divine blessings, and form critical alliances. They encounter teachings on detachment, gain powerful weapons, and practice self-discipline. In their incognito year, they protect their honor, aid allies, and then reveal their identities and strengthen bonds for the impending conflict.

When Yudhishthira seeks to negotiate with Duryodhana for the return of their kingdom, Duryodhana refuses, making war inevitable. Kunti urges Yudhishthira to fulfill his duty to his kshatriya warrior caste, which includes protecting society and upholding justice. Bhishma warns Duryodhana against war, but Duryodhana remains obstinate. The epic battle commences, with Bhishma leading the Kaurava forces but advising the Pandavas on how to defeat him. The Pandavas implement his strategy, and Bhishma, pierced by arrows, falls. Before dying, Bhishma imparts wisdom to Yudhishthira. The Pandavas and Kauravas perform his funeral rites with reverence. The goddess Ganga mourns her son; Krishna consoles her, explaining that Bhishma has attained the highest spiritual realms due to his righteousness.