Utilitarianism

“Utilitarianism” is a philosophical essay written by English philosopher John Stuart Mill in 1863. In this long essay, Mill seeks to provide a definition for the moral philosophy of utilitarianism, which was originally developed by the philosopher Jeremy Bentham. As a philosophy, utilitarianism argues that a desire for happiness lies at the heart of all moral considerations. Mill’s essay expanded on the philosophical ideas initially proposed by Bentham and specifically sought to respond to common criticisms or misunderstandings of utilitarianism. This guide follows the version of “Utilitarianism” collected in the 2015 edition of the Oxford University Press anthology of Mill’s writings, titled On Liberty, Utilitarianism, and Other Essays. The essay “Utilitarianism” is divided into five chapters.

In the first chapter, Mill describes some of the general questions that concern any moral philosopher. Mill believes that the field of moral philosophy has not significantly developed since the time of the Ancient Greek philosophers; the general and first principles upon which morality is based remain unknown. Most moral philosophers prior to Mill belong to two different schools of thought concerning ethics, intuitive ethics and inductive ethics; these schools of thought differ on the question of whether morality is inherent in human nature or learned through experience. While both forms of ethics agree that morality must be based upon foundational principles, neither have succeeded in outlining what those principles are. “Utilitarianism” fills this gap by arguing that all moral questions are based upon what Mill calls the Utility Principle, which holds that morality is based on the desire to increase happiness (or pleasure) and avoid pain. 

Chapter 2 focuses on the meaning of utilitarianism and the Utility Principle. Throughout the chapter, Mill responds to a series of common misconceptions about utilitarianism. Mill explains that utilitarianism seeks to increase pleasure in people’s lives, not avoid or prevent it. Mill also clarifies the definition of pleasure; he does not mean pleasure in the form of satisfying animalistic desires, but the higher forms of pleasure that only humans are able to appreciate. Mill also explains that the Utility Principle is concerned less with actions that improve individual happiness than with actions that improve the general happiness of society as a whole.

In Chapter 3, Mill describes the sanction by which society is obligated to follow the ideas of utilitarianism. Mill argues that the sanction for any moral philosophy, including utilitarianism, is an individual’s conscience, which creates a feeling of pain or remorse whenever an individual commits actions that break the moral code. Utilitarianism has a special sanction, however, due to its connection to humanity’s natural inclination to exist as social beings. Because humans have an inherent desire to be a part of a community, they are inclined to follow the code of utilitarianism as their social desires lead them to seek the betterment of society as a whole.

Chapter 4 contains Mill’s outline of what he believes is the proof of utilitarianism. Mill argues that it is impossible to prove that happiness is desirable beyond the fact that experience shows that people desire to increase their happiness. For Mill, this fact demonstrates that the goal of an individual’s actions is that individual’s own happiness or pleasure, which, he argues, proves the Utility Principle.

The final chapter of “Utilitarianism” examines the relationship between utility and justice. Mill notes that many people believe that a desire for justice is the basis for morality, rather than a desire for happiness or pleasure. Throughout this chapter, Mill attempts to prove that the desire for justice is a subcategory of the desire for happiness. Mill investigates the ideal of justice, which, he argues, is a feeling connected to people’s legal rights; the notion of justice includes laws that do exist and laws that should exist. Mill contends that justice is a feeling based in an individual’s animal instinct for self-preservation, and this instinct applies to entire communities through humankind’s sympathetic nature. As such, Mill argues that justice is analogous to the utility principle, as it is ultimately concerned with the happiness and good of society as a whole.